History of Canada

is a country of 32 million inhabitants that occupies the northern portion of the North American continent, and is the world's second largest country in area.[1] Inhabited for millennia by First Nations (aboriginal), Canada has evolved from a group of European colonies into an officially bilingual (English and French), multicultural federation, having peacefully obtained sovereignty from its last colonial possessor, Great Britain. France sent the first large group of settlers in the 17th century, but Canada came to be dominated by the British until the country attained full independence in the 20th century. Its history has been affected by its inhabitants, its geography, and its relations with the outside world.

First Peoples
Many indigenous peoples (both First Nations and Inuit) have inhabited the region that is now Canada for thousands of years and have their own diverse histories. Aside from spiritual explanations of indigenous origins, anthropologists continue to argue over various possible models of migration to modern day Canada, as well as their pre-contact populations. Indigenous peoples contributed significantly to the culture and economy of the early European colonies and as such have played an important role in fostering a unique Canadian cultural identity.
See also: List of First Nations peoples

European Contact

Viking colonisation site at L'Anse-aux-Meadows
There are a number of reports of contact made before Columbus between the first peoples and those from other continents. The case of Viking contact is supported by the remains of a Viking settlement in L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland. This may well have been the place Icelandic Norseman Leifur Eiríksson referred to as Vinland around the year 1000.
The presence of Basque cod fishermen and whalers, just a few years after Columbus, has also been cited, with at least nine fishing outposts having been established on Labrador and Newfoundland. The largest of these settlements was the Red Bay station, with an estimated 900 people. Basque whalers may have begun fishing the Grand Banks as early as the 15th century.
The next European explorer acknowledged as landing in what is now Canada was John Cabot, who landed somewhere on the coast of North America (probably Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island) in 1497 and claimed it for King Henry VII of England. Portuguese and Spanish explorers also visited Canada, but it was the French who first began to explore further inland and set up colonies, beginning with Jacques Cartier in 1534. Under Samuel de Champlain, the first French settlement was made in 1605 at Port-Royal (today's Annapolis Royal), and in 1608 the heart of New-France, which later grew to be Quebec City, was established. The French claimed Canada as their own and 6,000 settlers arrived, settling along the St. Lawrence and in the Maritimes. Britain also had a presence in Newfoundland and with the advent of settlements, claimed the south of Nova Scotia as well as the areas around the Hudson Bay.
The first contact with the Europeans was disastrous for the first peoples. Explorers and traders brought European diseases, such as smallpox, which killed off entire villages. Relations varied between the settlers and the Natives. The French befriended several Algonquin nations, including the Huron peoples and nations of the Wabanaki Confederacy, and entered into a mutually beneficial trading relationship with them. The Iroquois, however, became dedicated opponents of the French and warfare between the two was unrelenting, especially as the British armed the Iroquois in an effort to weaken the French.
The first agricultural settlements in what was to become Canada were located around the French settlement of Port Royal in what is now Nova Scotia. The population of Acadians, as this group became known, reached 5,000 by 1713.
See also: Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, French colonization of the Americas, and British colonization of the Americas

New France (Nouvelle-France) 1604-1763
Main article: New France

Map of New France made by Samuel de Champlain on 1612
After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608 it became the capital of New France. The coastal communities were based upon the cod fishery, the economy along the St Lawrence River was based on farming. French voyageurs traveled deep into the hinterlands (of what is today Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba) trading guns, gunpowder, cloth, knives, and kettles for beaver furs. The fur trade only encouraged a small population, however, as minimal labour was required. Encouraging settlement was always difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1759 New France only had a population of some 60,000.
New France had other problems besides low immigration. The French government had little interest or ability in supporting their colony and it was mostly left to its own devices. The economy was primitive and much of the population was involved in little more than subsistence agriculture. The colonists also engaged in a long running series of wars with the Iroquois.

Wars in the Colonial Era
Main article: French and Indian Wars
While the French were well established in Canada, Britain had control over the Thirteen Colonies to the south as well as control over Hudson Bay. The British, however, with greater financial power and a larger navy, were consistently in a better position to defend and expand their colonies than the French.[citation needed] The French government gave very little support to their colonists in New France and the colonists, for the most part, had to fend for themselves.[citation needed] Britain and France repeatedly went to war in the 17th and 18th centuries, and made their colonial empires into battlefields. Numerous naval battles were fought in the West Indies; the main land battles were fought in and around Canada.

The Death of General Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, part of the Seven Years' War.
The first areas won by the British were the Maritime provinces. After Queen Anne's War, Nova Scotia, other than Cape Breton, was ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht. This gave Britain control over thousands of French-speaking Acadians. Not trusting these new subjects, who repeatedly proclaimed their neutrality, the British first tried to dilute their numbers by bringing in Protestants settlers from Europe. Finally the British ordered the Great Upheaval of 1755, deporting about 12,000 Acadians to destinations throughout their North American holdings. Many settled in southern Louisiana, creating the Cajun culture there. Some Acadians managed to hide and others eventually returned to Nova Scotia, but they were far outnumbered by a new migration of Yankees from New England who transformed Nova Scotia.
During King George's War, British colonial forces captured the French stronghold of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, but this gain was returned to France under the 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Canada was also an important battlefield in the Seven Years' War, during which Great Britain gained control of Quebec City after the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759, and Montreal in 1760.

Canada under British Imperial Control 1764-1867
Main article: Canada under British Imperial Control (1764-1867)

Henri Julien's artistic rendition of the Battle of Chateauguay, part of the War of 1812
With the end of the Seven Years' War and the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763, France ceded almost all of its territory in North America. The new British rulers left alone much of the religious, political and social culture of the French-speaking habitants. Violent conflict continued during the next century, leading Canada into the War of 1812 and a pair of Rebellions in 1837.
In 1837, rebellions against the British colonial government took place in both Upper and Lower Canada. Their motivation was not so much anti-British and pro-Annexation (many of the rebels were themselves British in both Upper and Lower Canada). In Upper Canada, a band of Reformers under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie took up arms in a disorganized and ultimately unsuccessful series of small-scale skirmishes around Toronto, London, and Hamilton.
In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion occurred against British rule. Both English- and French-Canadian rebels, with some American backing, fought several skirmishes against the authorities. The towns of Chambly and Sorel were taken by the rebels, and Quebec City was isolated from the rest of the colony. Montreal rebel leader Robert Nelson read a declaration of independence to a crowd at Napierville in 1838. Les Patriotes, however, were defeated after battles across Quebec. Hundreds were arrested, and several villages were burnt in reprisal.
Despite the military defeat, the essential objective of the rebellions was later achieved because of the insurrections. This was when Lord Durham was sent to examine the situation and his Durham Report strongly recommended responsible government. A less well received recommendation, however, was the amalgamation of Upper and Lower Canada in order to forcibly assimilate the French speaking population; The Canadas were merged into a single, quasi-federal colony, the United Province of Canada, with the Act of Union (1840).
Once the United States agreed to the 49th parallel north as the border separating it from western British North America, the British government created the Pacific coast colonies of British Columbia in 1848 and Vancouver Island in 1849, They were eventually united in 1866.
A set of proposals called the Seventy-Two Resolutions were drafted at the 1864 Quebec Conference. They laid out the framework for an independent Canada. They were adopted by the majority of the provinces of Canada, and became the basis for the London Conference of 1866.

Post-Confederation Canada 1867-1914
Main article: Post-Confederation Canada (1867-1914)
On July 1, 1867, with the passing of the British North America Act by the British Parliament, the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became a federation, regarded as a kingdom in her own right.[2] John A. Macdonald had spoken of "founding a great British monarchy" and wanted the newly created country to be called the "Kingdom of Canada."[3] Although had its monarch in London, the Colonial Office opposed as "premature" and "pretentious" the term "kingdom." It might antagonize the United States. The term dominion was chosen to indicate Canada's status as a self-governing colony of the British Empire, the first time it was used in reference to a country.
With the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, the new country expanded East, West and North, to assert its authority over a greater territory. A major means to achieve this was the foundation of the Northwest Mounted Police (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) which patrolled the territories. Manitoba joined the Dominion in 1870, and British Columbia in 1871. Westward expansion encountered serious resistance from the region's Métis inhabitants, in the form of the Red River Rebellion and the North-West Rebellion. In 1905, Saskatchewan and Alberta were admitted as provinces.

Canada in World Wars and Interwar Years
Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years

Strikers from unemployment relief camps climbing on boxcars as part of the On to Ottawa Trek
Canada's participation in the First World War helped to foster a sense of Canadian nationhood. The highpoint of Canadian military achievement came at the Battle of Vimy Ridge on April 9, 1917, in which the Canadian Corps captured a fortified German hill that had resisted British and French attacks earlier in the war. Battles such as Vimy, as well as the success of Canadian flying aces including William Barker and Billy Bishop, helped to give Canada a new sense of identity. As a result of the war, the Canadian government became more assertive and less deferential to British authority, because many Canadians were dismayed by what they saw as British command failures.
Canada is sometimes considered to be the country hardest hit by the interwar Great Depression. The economy fell further than that of any nation other than the United States. It hit especially hard in Western Canada, where a full recovery did not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. Hard times led to the creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the form of the On to Ottawa Trek.

Amphibious vehicles taking Canadian troops across the Scheldt in Holland, during WWII
Canada's involvement in the Second World War began when Canada declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939, one week after Britain. Canadian forces were involved in the failed defence of Hong Kong, the Dieppe Raid in August 1942, the Allied invasion of Italy, and the Battle of Normandy. Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War. Many thousands more served in the merchant marine. In all, more than 45,000 gave their lives, and another 55,000 were wounded. Countless others shared the suffering and hardship of war. By the end of the war, Canada had, temporarily at least, become a significant military power. However, the Big Three paid little attention to Canada.
Conscription legislation was enacted during both wars (though on the initial promise of home-front service only in WWII), leading to increased tension between French and English Canadians. During the First World War, Prime Minister Borden's government enfranchised women who had close male relatives serving overseas, in the hopes of securing their support in the 1917 federal election.

History of Canada (1945-1960)
Main article: History of Canada (1945-1960)
Prosperity returned to Canada during Second World War. With continued Liberal governments, national policies increasingly turned to social welfare, including hospital insurance, old-age pensions, and veterans' pensions. The economic recovery led Newfoundland to consider its options. The financial crisis of the Great Depression, soured by rampant corruption, led it to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British governor. It now had the option of staying as crown colony, returning to Dominion status, or joining Canada. (It was not allowed to consider joining the U.S.) They decided to join Canada. Canada's foreign policy during in the Cold War was deeply connected to that of its neighbour to the south, demonstrated by support for NATO, entry into the Korean War the establishment an air defence system with the United States, NORAD.

History of Canada (1960-1981)
Main article: History of Canada (1960-1981)
In the 1960s, a Quiet Revolution took place in Quebec, increasing the tensions between Québécois nationalists and English Canada, until violence erupted during the 1970 October Crisis. During his long tenure in the office (1968–79, 1980–84), Prime Minister Trudeau attempted to reunify Canadian citizens.

History of Canada (1982-1992)
Main article: History of Canada (1982-1992)
As the highlight of his 1980s years as prime minister, Trudeau brought about the Patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982, which gave Canada a Charter of Rights and final independence from Britain (though Canada had been effectively independent for many decades). The Patriation negotiations led to renewed antagonism between Quebec and the rest of Canada, which later Prime Minister Mulroney's Meech Lake Accord failed to smooth over. During the same decade, Canada engaged in violent conflict both abroad in the First Gulf War and at home, during the Oka Crisis. Also this period saw the Mount Cashel Boys Home Scandal.

History of Canada (1992-Present)
Main article: History of Canada (1992-Present)
In the past decade and a half, Canada experienced the tenure of another one of the longest continuously serving prime ministers (Jean Chrétien), a second Quebec referendum on sovereignty, and the creation of a new territory, Nunavut. While long standing issues like immigration continued to demand attention, new debates over same-sex marriage and international peacekeeping would increasingly take the forefront.
As of 2007, Stephen Harper is the Prime Minister of Canada, leading the Conservative Party in a minority government.

References
Please see Bibliography of Canadian History for an extensive list of sources.
The Dictionary of Canadian Biography(1966-2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of those who died by 1930
Bliss, Michael. Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1987.
Brune, Nick and Alastair Sweeny. History of Canada Online. Waterloo: Northern Blue Publishing, 2005.
J.M. Bumsted. The Peoples of Canada: A Pre-Confederation History; and The Peoples of Canada: A Post-Confederation History. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel. Canada: A National History. Toronto: Pearson Education Canada, 2003.
Margaret Conrad and Alvin Finkel, eds. Foundations: Readings in Post-Confederation Canadian History. and Nation and Society: Readings in Post-Confederation Canadian History. Toronto: Pearson Longman, 2004. articles by scholars
Gerald Hallowell, ed. The Oxford Companion to Canadian History (2004) 1650 short entries
Desmond Morton. A Short History of Canada 5th ed (2001)
Desmond Morton. A Military History of Canada (1999)
Desmond Morton. Working People: An Illustrated History of the Canadian Labour Movement (1999)
James C. Marsh, ed. The Canadian Encyclopedia 4 vol 1985; also cd-rom editions
Norrie K. H. and Owram Doug. A History of the Canadian Economy, 1991* Kenneth G. Pryke and Walter C. Soderlund, eds. Profiles of Canada. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press, 2003. 3rd edition.
M. Brook Taylor ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 1. Doug Owram, ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 2. Toronto: 1994. historiography
Statistics Canada. Historical Statistics of Canada. 2d ed., Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1983.
Canadawiki features hundreds of stories from Canadian History as well as the CanText text library and CanLine Chronology of Canadian History.
Bliss, Michael. Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1987.
Thomas Thorner with Thor Frohn-Nielsen, eds. "A Few Acres of Snow": Documents in Pre-Confederation Canadian History, and "A Country Nourished on Self-Doubt": Documents on Post-Confederation Canadian History, 2nd ed. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press, 2003.
Mason Wade, The French Canadians, 1760-1945 (1955) 2 vol